What Do You Mean.....
"Management"?
So God has appointed some in the church (for His own use): first apostles (special messengers); second prophets (inspired preachers and expounders); third teachers, then wonderworkers, then those with ability to heal the sick, helpers, ADMINISTRATORS, (speakers in) different (unknown) tongues.
— I Corinthians 12:28
(Amplified Bible)
The failure to formulate a sound philosophy of management may have serious consequences for Christian organizations in a number of areas. Interpersonal relations within the organization, for example, are an area coming under increasing attention at management seminars and in professional articles. Behavioral scientists are bringing to bear new discoveries in human relations and their effect upon
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organizational efficiency. But for years industry has had at its disposal certain fairly well-accepted principles which aided in the handling of interpersonal problems. "Discuss your differences" would seem to be one principle with as much basis in scriptural teaching as the Sunday school lesson. Yet, observers note, Christian organizations all too frequently fail to recognize such principles.
The matter of handling substandard performance is an even more glaring example. Here secular organizations would seem, generally, to approach the problem in a more "Christianlike" manner than do many of our fine Christian organizations. Performance appraisal and interview procedures go a great way toward meeting this problem. After all, employees have a right to know how they are doing. When they are not doing well, it is critically important that they know this. The Christian organization which, unwittingly, glosses over deficient performance, or pretends it does not exist, is performing an ultimate disservice to the employee as well as to the organization.
A feeling of guilt resulting from confused notions about "judging others" and "seeing only the best in others" at times seems to cripple effective administration at this point. After this there may come rationalization of poor performances as one hears, "God is the ultimate judge" or "This is a faith mission, and we can't pay enough to get good help."
Perhaps the responsibility for such a situation lies with the management and a lack of comprehension of management principles, biblically based, which secular organizations seem to be using far more effectively than our Christian organizations. As one observer commented, "Somehow ungodly men have developed systems of organization which permit them to work together in states of relative harmony and unity, whereas godly men, refusing
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to admit that these organizational structures are needed, live in states of chaos and disunity. The tragedy of this fact becomes evident when we realize that many of the successful systems of organization under which the ungodly men work and which the godly men refuse to accept are biblically based."1
We have seen enough to accept that what a manager believes about management is important... And it is important that there is a belief system in place. An executive, in other words, must have a "philosophy of management." Do you have such a philosophy?
If you haven't, how about starting with your view of mankind; your view of work; your view of authority; your view of organization;2 and your view of management (its functions and activities; its principles and definitions; its hazards and its opportunities; and its challenge to those of us who would be responsible stewards of the gifts God has entrusted to our care)?
History records and logic supports the wisdom of knowing why you are doing what you are doing. In the approaching era of managerial obsolescence, no one doubts that it will be those leaders who know the reasons behind their actions today who will most likely be leading successfully tomorrow. "Principles will always defeat practice"3 is another way of stating the same conclusion. In the midst of a technological and knowledge explosion, with new developments impinging at every point in the managerial process, we need more than ever managers who know what management is and why it is necessary.
Olive Sheldon has given us perhaps the most concise statement on the need for a philosophy of management:
The man at the wheel may be replaced, may be put under a new authority, may be regarded differently by the crew, and may work with different instruments in a different way, but the
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functions performed remain constant, essential under every conceivable circumstances. It is important, therefore, that we should devise a philosophy of management, a code of principles, scientifically determined and generally accepted, to act as a guide, by reason of its foundation upon ultimate things, for the daily practice of the profession.4
As you seek to develop your own philosophy of management, subject it to critical questions. What is the purpose of management — what is its ultimate objective? How do my personal objectives in life fit into this purpose? What are the available means for carrying out this purpose? What are the criteria for selection of the best means and are the means acceptable under these criteria? How will results be appraised? Most important of all — know what you are doing and why.
WHAT REALLY IS... "MANAGEMENT"?
Our reliable friend Webster tells us that management is "the judicious use of means to accomplish an end." One of the most exhaustive studies of the subject of management ever conducted came to a similar conclusion. After reviewing all existing definitions in the literature and analyzing the concepts implicit in the actual behavior of a large number of individuals and groups who have been conspicuously successful in managing their affairs, the American Institute of Management concluded that "management is the art of bringing ends and means together — the art of purposeful action."5 This definition was held to include every form of human activity covered by any of the terms used to refer to management.
One recognizes that this approach to management is more "purpose-oriented" than many. Lawrence A. Appley, former president of the American Management Association and chairman emeritus of its board of directors, proposed
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the definition that "management is getting things done through people." This concise definition has the advantage of brevity and of emphasizing the importance of people in any concept of management. Those subscribing to this definition suggest that deciding what to get done and appraising the results are integral parts of the management process. They would then suggest that the former definition ("the art of bringing ends and means together") implies equally appropriate emphasis on the human resources as an integral element of the "means."
Closely allied to the matter of philosophies of management is that of styles of leadership, or perhaps, methods of management. A great deal had been written in this area. Contributions range from the "autocrat-bureaucrat-democrat" grouping6 to the "managerial grid" based on a vertical co-ordinate of concern for people and a horizontal co-ordinate of concern for production.7 Determined by the extent of concern manifest for each of these two factors, the position of any given management, or the "style of leadership" of a particular manager may be located on the grid. The Theory X- Theory Y philosophy assumes either that employees are indolent, irresponsible and require coercion (Theory X) or that they are creative, imaginative and seek responsibility (Theory Y), with appropriate graduations in between.8
One view disagrees with all firm and tightly structured theories, proposing that none of them really fit all situations — rather that combinations will be required depending upon the demands of the position; the character of the personnel; and the personality, standards and expectations of the supervisor.9 This latter view suggests five basic categories from which combinations may be drawn: (1) laissez-faire: no structure or supervision given; members set own goals and standards of performance; leader is
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"first among equals," without authority, a resource man; (2) democratic-participative: provides some structure and framework within which members still largely set own goals and standards; leader and advisor with minimum authority; (3) manipulative-inspirational: some structure, usually confused and ambiguous; goals set by management with little participation but employees' acceptance sought by "hard sell"; (4) benevolent-automatic: activities of group largely structured; relatively close supervision; however, employees encouraged to make suggestions concerning their goals, working condition, etc.; (5) autocratic-bureaucratic: activities of group totally and arbitrarily structured; participation by group in any context totally discouraged; supervision is authoritarian and autocratic; questioning of orders regarded as insubordinate.
TEN BASIC PRINCIPLES
Principles of management have been suggested by writers as long as management has been written about. Any search for primary principles would lead at some point in the endeavor to the American Management Association. Few people have been involved as long or as intensively with the profession of management as its former president, Lawrence Appley. In his book The Management Evolution, Appley sets forth "Ten Commandments" as the most significant principles and truths applying to those engaged in leadership responsibilities. With his permission they are reproduced below.
1. Identify the people of an organization as its greatest asset.2. Make a profit in order to continue rendering service (for profit-oriented organizations).
3. Approach every task in an organized, conscious
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manner so that the outcome will not be left to chance.4. Establish definite, long - and short-range objectives to insure greater accomplishment.
5. Secure full attainment of objectives through general understanding and acceptance of them by others.
6. Keep individual members of the team well adjusted by seeing that each one knows what is to be done, how well it is to be done, what his or her authority is, and what the work relationships with others should be.
7. Concentrate on individual improvement through regular review of performance and potential.
8. Provide opportunity for assistance and guidance in self-development as a fundamental of institutional growth.
9. Maintain adequate and timely incentives and rewards for increase in human effort.
10. Supply work satisfactions for those who perform this work and those who are served by it.10
In noting that eight of these ten commandments directly affect human beings, the author concludes that management is unquestionably a matter of individual conduct as a basis for inspiring the finest of thinking and practice on the part of other people.
THE PROCESS... AN OVERVIEW
Through substantial expenditure of time and effort, the American Institute of Management developed a fundamental concept of what management is. The ideas embodied in this concept, first presented in its ninth edition of a Manual of Excellent Management, have drawn a very
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favorable response and were summarized as follows in the reprint What Makes Them Excellent?:
Management starts with the selection of purposes. It then arranges them in a hierarchy according to their relative importance, selects the means for achieving them, arranges the means in plans which incorporate time schedules, and states objectives and, if possible, quantitative goals toward which progress can be measured. Most goals can be reached by a number of different means, from which the manager must select on the basis of their relative efficiency, morality, or other criteria of desirability.The general purposes and plans of any undertaking involving more then one person must be communicated to each person responsible for a particular set of contributory activities, with each person's part de-limited and defined. Each, in turn, must communicate the same kind of information to subordinates, and so on down the chain of responsibility to the last participant. Up the chain must flow information about the progress and outcomes of the various activities. It is essential, to enlist effective participants, that each should have an understanding with his or her associates and, above all, his or her leaders as to how private life purposes will be advanced by contribution to the team and by improvement in that contribution. There must be supervision to assure timely performance and make necessary adjustments, as well as to insure loyal cooperation and adherence to the general purposes of the undertaking.
No matter what means are employed to achieve a selected purpose, there are inevitably other outcomes, some of which may be irrelevant to, or even inimical to, achievement of the intended purpose. The unwanted side-effects must be minimized.11
Their study of excellent management led the Institute to identify five previously overlooked areas in which those in excellently managed companies surpassed others:
1. More of them have a clear understanding of the nature and function of entrepreneurship (creative
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and imaginative review of the assumptions and projections on which the endeavor is based) and of the need for continuity in it.2. More of them have a clear, inclusive and fundamental concept of what management is.
3. More of them have a deep and realistic understanding of human nature and motives.
4. More of them have a clear view of the full range of their moral responsibilities, and of the need for maintaining a balance among them.
5. More of them are intelligently dissatisfied with their own results.12
WHAT MANAGERS DO
Just what do managers really do when they are managing? In answer to this pertinent question, an anonymous writer has humorously written:
Functions of an Executive
As nearly everyone knows, an executive has virtually nothing to do, except—
To decide what is to be done;To tell somebody to do it;
To listen to reasons why it should not be done, why it should be done by someone else, or why it should be done in a different way;
To follow up to see if the thing has been done;
To discover it has not been done;
To inquire why it has not been done;
To listen to excuses from the person who should have done it;
To follow up again to see if the thing has been done, only to discover it has been done incorrectly;
To point out how it should have been done;
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To conclude that as long as it has been done it might as well be left where it is;To wonder if it is time to get rid of a person who cannot do the thing right;
To reflect that that person probably has a large family and certainly any successor would be just as bad and maybe even worse;
To consider how much simpler and better the thing would have been done if one had done it oneself in the first place;
To reflect sadly that one could have done it right in twenty minutes and now one had to spend two days to find out why it has taken three weeks for somebody else to do it wrong.
As basic as this question is, few definitive answers have been presented. One of the most helpful of these is the work of Louis Allen, which reduces management to general functions which encompass all its various activities. As head of Louis A. Allen and Associates, he had researched the field intensively for twelve years, during which he studied nearly four hundred companies and more than twelve thousand managers. In his book The Management Profession13 he analyzes the four major functions of management (planning, organizing, leading and controlling); discusses the nineteen managing activities comprising these major functions; and develops thirty-seven principles of professional management.
As useful as this study has been to top and middle management in industry, it is equally relevant to executives in Christian organizations. While we do not have Christian organizations as large as General Motors, it has long been known that managerial principles are not respecters of size. People, whether few or many, who band together to accomplish a common purpose, in a church or a college, a denomination or an institute or a mission
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agency, will be more effective in their endeavors if they give careful consideration to the basic principles, activities and functions of management.
Because of its importance to a clear understanding of what managers do and because such understanding is a requisite for managerial effectiveness in Christian organizations, Allen's outline of functions and activities is presented, with his permission. The following chapters will describe these functions and activities and relate them specifically to problems faced in Christian organizations.
FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES OF MANAGEMENT
PLANNING — Predetermining a course of action.
Forecasting: Estimating the future.Establishing Objectives: Determining the end results to be accomplished.
Programming: Establishing sequence and priority of steps to be followed in reaching objectives.
Scheduling: Establishing a time sequence for program steps.
Budgeting: Allocating resources necessary to accomplish objectives.
Establishing Procedures: Developing and applying standardized methods of performing specified work.
Developing Policies: Developing and interpreting standing decisions that apply to repetitive questions and problems of significance to the enterprise as a whole.
ORGANIZING — Arranging and relating work so that it can be performed most effectively by people.
Developing Organization Structure: Identifying and grouping the work to be performed at various positions.Delegating: Entrusting responsibility and authority to others and creating accountability for results.
Establishing Relationships: Creating conditions necessary for mutually co-operative efforts of people.
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LEADING — Causing people to take effective action.
Decision Making: Arriving at conclusions and judgments.Communicating: Creating understanding.
Motivating: Inspiring, encouraging and impelling people to take required action.
Selecting People: Choosing people for positions within the organization.
Developing People: Helping people improve their knowledge, attitudes and skills.
CONTROLLING — Assessing and regulating work in progress and completed.
Establishing Performance: Establishing the criteria by which methods and results will be evaluated.Performance Measuring: Recording and reporting work in progress and completed.
Performance Evaluating: Appraising work in progress and results secured.
Performance Correcting: Regulating and improving methods and results.
REFERENCES:
1. Erickson, Wallace A., "Excellence in Management," Hillsdale College, November 4, 1965.
2. For opposing views of organization as an all-powerful molder of its members versus membership of individuals free to pursue private goals, see Human Relations in Administration, p. 17; plus views of Chris Argyrus, ibid, p. 77. For resolution of views see Charles L. Hughes Goal Setting — Key to Individual Organizational Effectiveness, American Management Association, New York, 1965.
3. Batten, J. D., Developing a Tough-Minded Climate for Results, American Management Association, New York, 1965.
4. Sheldon, Oliver, The Philosophy of Management.
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5. "What Is Management?" Manual of Excellent Managements, Fifth Edition, American Institute of Management, New York, 1959.
6. Jennings, Eugene E., The Executive.. Autocrat... Bureaucrat... Democratic, Harper and Row, New York, 1962.
7. Blake, Robert R., "Breakthrough in Organization Development," Harvard Business Review, November-December, 1964.
8. McGregor, Douglas, The Human Side of Enterprise, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960.
9. McMurry, Robert, Identifying and Developing Top Executives, a management seminar outline.
10. Appley, Lawrence A., The Management Evolution, American Management Association, New York, 1963.
11. What Makes Them Excellent?, American Institute of Management, New York, 1965.
12. Ibid.
13. Allen, Louis A., The Management Profession, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.
